Not much is known about the characteristics of solo offenders relative to group offenders engaged in cyber-dependent crime. This cross-sectional survey study utilized a general population sample of 1240 Dutch young people. Respondents completed a battery of validated measurements that measured lifetime offending behaviors and screened for risk factors. Multinominal regression models were estimated to explore the factors that differentiate solo offenders from group offenders engaged in low-tech and high-tech forms of cybercrime. Analyses revealed that solo offenders showed a different profile than those who offend together with others, and that correlates were particularly dependent on the level of technical sophistication of crimes. Low-tech solo offenders seemed to act more opportunistically, whereas high-tech solo offenders had programming skills and higher levels of self-control. Findings imply that co-offending in cyber-dependent crime may be more of an instrumental choice for offenders who have insufficient capabilities to offend alone.

The fourth study entails a secondary data analysis aimed at discerning socio-psychological factors influencing cybercrime involvement and desistance. The survey data were collected in 2023 from a research panel of a renowned Dutch research agency, resulting in a sample of 1,240 individuals aged 16 to 25. Validated questionnaires and items were utilized, capturing risk and desistance factors commonly observed within forensic populations. The dataset includes measures of involvement in four cyber-dependent and six cyber-enabled financial crimes, as well as intentions to engage in these activities in the future. It encompasses components expected to be associated with cybercrime involvement or desistance, including demographics, criminogenic needs (i.e. antisocial personality patterns, attitudes, peer influence), and cyber-specific factors (i.e. IT-skills, online disinhibition, routine activities, parental supervision).
Beyond shedding light on the risk and desistance factors associated with cybercrime involvement, the dataset enables comparisons between (potential) cyber-enabled crime offenders, (potential) cyber-dependent crime offenders, traditional crime offenders, and non-offenders.

Secondary data analysis: Assessing cybercrime involvement and desistance factors

Collecting Data from Offenders and Ethical Hackers

Exploring the factors that differentiate individual and group offenders in cyber-dependent crime

The purpose of this study is to better understand the associations between online gaming and cybercrime. More specifically, the authors explore the individual risks of gamers and the role of gaming in various forms of criminal behaviors. Currently, research is unclear and inconsistent about the possible criminogenic function of online gaming.

This cross-sectional study uses a sample of 1,240 Dutch young people aged between 16 and 25 years. Respondents completed a survey consisting of previously validated measurements, screening for criminal behaviors and key criminogenic needs. A number of regression models were estimated to explore the specific factors and crimes associated with gaming, differentiating young people based on the hours they spent on online gaming per week.

Analysis revealed that gaming was negatively associated with most criminal behaviors, which indicates a protective function. Risks were primarily observed for in-game deviance, such as theft from opponents. However, gamers showed higher levels of technological skills, were more disinhibited online and were also more likely to be exposed to online deviant peer support compared to non-gamers. These factors can potentially facilitate escalation in cybercrime offending for a subset of young people under specific circumstances

This study is one of the first to address the criminogenic needs and offending behaviors associated with various levels of online gaming. Future research could explore more in-depth the role of gaming together with peers as opposed to gaming alone.

Online gaming as a criminological environment: exploring criminogenic needs and offending behaviors of gamers

Financial-economic cyber-enabled crime (hereinafter: financial cybercrime) has increased dramatically over the past years. However, research on financial cybercrime is still underdeveloped and highly heterogeneous, especially regarding the processes of initiation to and desistance from crime. This paper synthesizes existing knowledge on pathways into, desistance from, and risk factors related to financial cybercrime, and identifies research gaps. Adhering to PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we executed a systematic search and identified 37 eligible documents published as of February 2022, indicating two initiation points into financial cybercrime: involvement in traditional crime, and experiencing strain. Through social learning, individuals then learn the necessary skills and knowledge and engage in financial cybercrime, after which the decision to desist is influenced by a cost-benefit analysis, the use of neutralization techniques, and maturing. As for risk factors, we identified 33, with being male, unemployed, having low self-control and deviant peers, and wanting to earn money quickly being of potential importance. Regarding research gaps, there is a dearth of research related to the initiation and desistance processes of financial cybercrime, and the identified studies lacked a robust research designs, with 76 percent being of low or medium quality. More quality research is needed to address these issues.

Mapping existing knowledge on online and offline involvement mechanisms and desistance  processes in cybercrime offending

Mapping Existing Knowledge

A systematic narrative review of pathways into, desistance from, and risk factors of financial-economic cyber-enabled crime

Individual differences associated with cybercrime offending remain under-researched. To address gaps in the literature and inform intervention, the current study compares cybercrime offenders, traditional offenders, and non-offenders in terms of risk factors for offending and online situational influences. We construct a survey using previously validated measurements, completed by 1,240 Dutch panel members aged 16 to 25. Two multinomial logistic regression models are estimated separately for cyber-dependent offenders and financial cybercrime offenders. Analysis reveals that cybercrime offenders overlap but also differ from traditional offenders. Cyber-dependent offenders seem to be a particular distinct offender group, while financial cybercrime offenders more closely resemble traditional offenders. Factors related to school, work, and leisure, but also personality, manifest differently for cybercrime: what was typically considered protective against traditional offending, such as higher levels of self-control, may actually provide opportunities to engage in cybercrime. Further longitudinal and experimental research is needed to support these conclusions.

Distinct group, distinct traits? A comparison of risk factors across cybercrime offenders, traditional offenders and non-offenders

Cyber-dependent crime is a growing global threat. However, research on cybercrime offending throughout the life course, especially on the factors leading to initiation and desistance of cyber-dependent crime remains underdeveloped. This paper synthesizes the literature on pathways into, desistance from, and risk factors related to cyber-dependent crime (hacking, malware, and DDoS attacks), and identifies research gaps. Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we conducted a systematic search and identified 86 eligible documents published as of February 2022. Results reveal a pathway into hacking through interest in technology and online videogames, which continues with social learning from peers involved in hacking activities, and thus leads to the world of cybercrime. Desistance from this pathway is influenced by a cost-benefit analysis and maturing. We also identified 27 risk factors for the initiation process in cyber-offending that are consistent in the literature. The most significant ones were being young, male, having low self-control, deviant peers, and frequently using the Internet.